THE 20 MOST ENDANGERED SPECIES OF THE WORLD TILL DATE

GIANT PANDA : - ONLY ABOUT 1600 OF GIANT PANDA (AILUROPODA MELANOLEUCA) ARE REMAINING IN THE WILD. AGAIN THE PROBLEM IS HABITAT LOSS - IN THE PANDA'S CASE ITS HABITAT FRAGMENTATION THAT'S THE REAL ISSUE, CREATING ISOLATED POPULATIONS. THEY ARE LIVING OVER 20 GEOGRAPHICALLY SEPARATE AREAS, AND INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT IS ON THE INCREASE, SO THERE'S STILL MUCH MORE TO BE DONE. THE GOOD NEWS IS THAT OVER HALF OF THE REMAINING PANDA HABITAT IS PROTECTED AND CORRIDORS ARE BEING ESTABLISHED TO CONNECT THE FRAGMENT POPULATIONS.

TIGER : - THERE ARE ONLY 3200 TIGERS (PANTHERA TIGRIS) LEFT IN WILD. THERE ORIGINAL RANGE DECREASED FROM 40% TO 7%. CONTINUING DEFORESTATION AND RAMPAT POACHING COULD PUSH SOME TIGER POPULATIONS TO THE SAME FATE AS ITS NOW - EXTINCT JAVAN AND BALINESE RELATIVES IN OTHER PARTS OF ASIA. TIGERS ARE REGULARLY POACHED FOR THEIR BODY PARTS. THERE SKINS ARE ALSO HIGHLY PRIZED. WITH THIS, SEA LEVEL RISE, DUE TO CLIMATE CHANGE, THREATENS THE MANGROVE HABITAT OF A KEY TIGER POPULATION IN BANGLADESH'S AND INDIA'S SUNDERBANS.


POLAR BEAR : - THE ARCTIC'S POLAR BEARS(URUS MARITIMUS) HAVE BECOME THE ICONIC SYMBOL OF EARLY VICTIMS OF CLIMATE - INCLUDE. HABITAT LOSS. MANY POLAR BEAR POPULATIONS WILL BE VULNEARABLE TO EXTINCTION WITHIN THE NEXT CENTURY IF THE WARMING TRENDS IN THE ARCTIC CONTINUE AT THE CURRENT PACE. W.W.F IS SUPPOTING FIELD RESEARCH TO BETTER UNDERSTAND HOW CLIMATE CHANGE WILL AFFECT POLAR BEARS AND TO DEVELOP ADAPTATION STRATEGIES. W.W.F ALSO WORKS TO PROTECT CRITICAL POLAR BEAR HABITAT  BY WORKING WITH GOVERNMENTS AND INDUSTRY TO REDUCE THREATS OF SHIPPING AND OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT IN THE REGION  AND WITH LOCAL COMMUNITIES TO REDUCE HUMAN - BEAR CONFLICT IN AREAS WHERE BEARS ARE ALREADY STANDED ON LAND FOR LONGER PERIODS OF TIME DUE TO LACK OF ICE.

MONARCH BUTTERFLY : - EVERY YEAR MILLIONS OF DELICATE MONARCH BUTTERFLIES (DANAUS PLEXIPPUS) MIGRATE FROM NORTH AMERICA TO THEIR WINTER HABITAT IN MEXICO. A WELL CONSERVED AND PROTECTED HIGH ALTITUDE PINE AND FIR FOREST IN MEXICO IS ESSENTIAL FOR THE SURVIVAL OF THE OVERWINTERING OF MONARCHS, WHICH HAS BEEN RECOGNIZED AS AN ENDANGERED BIOLOGICAL PHENOMENON. THE PROTECTION OF ITS REPRODUCTIVE HABITATS IN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA IS ALSO CRUCIAL TO SAVING THIS SPECIES MIGRATION.

JAVAN RHINOCEROS : - LISTED AS CRITICALLY ENDANGERED SPECIES ON THE IUCN RED LIST(2009), THE JAVAN RHINO(RHINOCEROS SONDAICUS) IS CONSIDERED TO BE ONE OF THE MOST ENDANGERED LARGE MAMMALS IN THE WORLD WITH ONLY TWO POPULATIONS EXISTING IN THE WILD, FOR A TOTAL NUMBER OF LESS THAN 60 ANIMALS. HIGHLY PRIZED AS A COMMODITY  IN TRADITIONAL ASIAN MEDICINE ZAVAN RHINOS HAVE ALSO BEEN BROUGHT TO THE VERGE OF EXTINCTION BY THE CONVERSION OF FOREST HABITAT TO FARMLAND. WWF HAS BEEN INVOLVED IN PROTECTION AND CONSERVATION OF THE JAVAN RHINO SINCE 1998, SUPPORTING FOREST RANGERS TO UNDERTAKE INCREASED PATROLLINGAND PROTECTION ACTIVITIES, CONDUCTING SURVEYS OF THE RHINO POPULATION, RAISING AWARENESS OF THE IMPORTANCE OF THE RHINOS TO LOCAL COMMUNITIES, AND SUPPORTING PARK MANAGEMENT. LAST MONTH, HIGHLY TRAINED SNIFFER DOGS WERE USED TO SEARCH FOR TRACES OF THE EXRTREMELY RARE AND ENDANGERED VIETNAMESE JAVAN RHINOCEROS, OF WHICH NO MORE THAN A DOZEN ARE THOUGHT TO EXIST. THESE SAMPLES WILL BE ANALYSED TO BETTER UNDERSTAND THE GENDER MIX AND WHETHER THIS SMALL POPULATION HAS A CHANCE OF SURVIVAL.

EUROPEAN EEL : - THE EUROPEAN EEL COMES FROM COASTAL AND FRESH WATER ECOSYSTEMS THROUGHOUT EUROPE, INCLUDING MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES. STOCKS HAVE DECLINED DRAMATICALLY OVER THE PAST SEVERAL DECADES DUE TO OVERFISHING AND POACHING. THERE IS SIGNIFICANT INTERNATIONAL DEMAND FOR THIS SPECIES , BOTH FOR LIVE JUVENILE EELS (SHIPPED FROM EUROPE TO ASIA) FOR REARING IN AQUACULTURE AND FOR THE HIGHLY VALUED MEAT OF ADULTS. WWF CALLS ON GOVERNMENTS TO INCLUDE THIS SPECIES IN CITES APPENDIX II. 

RED AND PINK CORAL : - A JEWEL THAT COMES FROM REEFS AND ATOLLS, IT IS THE MOST VALUABLE OF ALL THE PRECIOUS CORALS. PINK CORAL HAS BEEN FISHED FOR OVER 5,000 YEARS AND USED FOR JEWELLERY AND DECORATION. OVER-HARVESTING AND THE DESTRUCTION OF ENTIRE COLONIES BY BOTTOM TRAWLS AND DREDGES HAVE LED TO DRAMATIC POPULATION DECLINES. WWWF CALLS ON GOVERNMENTS TO INCLUDE ALL SPECIES OF RED AND PINK CORAL CITES APPENDIX II.

PORBEAGLE SHARK : - PORBEAGLE SHARK IS A POWERFUL, MEDIUM-SIZED, HIGHLY MIGRATORY SHARK. THERE IS INTERNATIONAL DEMAND FOR ITS HIGH VALUE MEAT AND FINS. IT IS ALSO USED AS FERTILIZER. WWF CALLS UPON GOVERNMENTS OF DIFFERENT NATIONS TO INCLUDE THE SPECIES IN CITES APPENDIX II.

SPINY DOGFISH : - SPINY DOGFISH IS A SLENDER, SMALL SIZED WHITE-SPOTTED SHARK THAT GROWS TO ABOUT ONE METRE LONG AND TRAVELS IN SCHOOLS. IT IS FOUND IN COOL, COASTAL WATERS WORLDWIDE.KNOWN AS ROCK SALMON, IT IS USED IN FISH AND CHIPS IN THE UK AND AS A SMOKED MEAT DELICACY IN GERMANY, CALLED SCHILLERLOCKEN WWF CALLS UPON GOVERNMENTS TO INCLUDE THE SPECIES IN CITES APPENDIX II.

SAWFISH : - POPULATION OF THE SEVEN SPECIES OF SAWFISH HAVE DRASTICALLY DECLINED. THEY ARE TRADED AS LIVE ANIMALS FOR PUBLIC AQUARIUMS, AND ALSO FOR THEIR FINS AND MEAT. THEIR DISTINCTIVE SAW LIKE SNOUTS ARE SOLD AS SOUVENIRS AND CEREMONIAL WEAKENS, WHERE OTHER BODY PARTS WERE USED FOR TRADITIONAL MEDICINE.

BIG LEAF MAHOGANY : - DEMAND FOR THE RED COLORED WOOD GOES UNABATED BECAUSE OF WORLDWIDE  CONSUMER DEMAND FOR QUALITY MAHOGANY HARDWOOD FURNITURE. MAHOGANY TREES ARE WIDELY DISTRIBUTED IN TROPICAL FORESTS FROM MEXICO TO THE AMAZON BASIN. HOWEVER THE SPECIES GROWS NATURALLY ONLY AS INDIVIDUAL TREES RATHER THAN IN GROUPS OF LARGE  FOREST STANDS. WHOLE SALE STRIPPING OF AMAZON FORESTS HAVE RESULTED IN PERHAPS 10 PERCENT OF THE WORLD'S SUPPLY BEING DEPLETED.

GREEN-CHEEKED PARROT : - THE GREEN-CHEEKED PARROT IS NATIVE TO MEXICO . IT HAS THE ABILITY TO MIMIC THE HUMAN VOICE. THE GREEN -CHEEKED PARROT HAS BEEN SIGNIFICANTLY REDUCED IN NUMBERS DUE TO AHUGE DEMAND FOR THESE LOVELY PET BIRDS, ESPECIALLY FROM THE UNITED STATES. EVEN AFTER PROHIBITING THE SALE OF THESE GREEN-CHEEKED BIRDS, DROVES OF THE SPECIES ARE STILL BEING ILLEGALLY TRADED ACROSS THE MEXICO/US BORDER.

BELUGA STARGEON : - BELUGA STARGEONS ARE ANCIENT LIVING FISH FOSSILS ARE FOUND IN THE CASPIAN SEA. THEY ARE VALUED THROUGHOUT THE WORLD CONNOISSEURS FOR THEIR SUPERIOR QUALITY CAVIAR. POACHING IS OUT OF CONTROL DUE TO EXCESSIVE DEMAQND AND HIGH PRICES PAID FOR THE STURGEONS " PEAR-LIKE " CAVIAR.

GOLDENSEAL : - GOLDENSEAL IS A HERB . IT IS FAVOURED BY NATUROPATHISTS FOR ITS PERCEIVED ABILITY TO HEAD NUMEROUS  AILMENTS FROM HEMORRHOIDS TO ALLERGIES. GOLDENSEAL IS NATIVE TO THE HARDWOOD FORESTS OF NORTH AMERICA. THE DEMAND FOR GOLDEN SEAL HAS RECENTLY LEAPED MORE THAN 30%.

ALLIGATOR SNAPPING TURTLE : - THE ALLIGATOR SNAPPING TURTLE IS PRIZED BY TURTLE TRAPPERS AND DEALERS FOR ITS RARE MEAT. IT IS THE LARGEST FRESH WATER TURTLE IN NORTH AMERICA. ALLIGATORS SNAPPING TURTLES ARE QUICKLY BEING DEPLETED DUE TO INCREASED SHIPMENTS TO MANY INTERNATIONAL WORLD MARKETS INCLUDING ASIA.

PACIFIC WALRUS : - THE ARCTIC OCEAN'S CHUKCHI AND BERING SEAS ARE THE HABITATS OF PACIFIC WALRUS (ODOBENUS ROSMARUS DIVERGENS), ONE OF THE LATEST VICTIMS OF CLIMATE CHANGE. IN SEPTEMBER OF THE PAST YEAR UPTO 200 DEAD WALRUSES WERE SPOTTED ON THE SHORE OF THE CHUKCHI SEA ON ALSKA'S NORTHWEST COAST. THESE ANIMALS USE FLOATING ICE FOR RESTING, NURSING CALVES AND BIRTHING, AND PROTECTION FROM PREDATORS WITH ARCTIC ICE MELTING, THE PACIFIC WALRUS IS EXPERIENCING HABITAT LOSS TO THE EXTENT THAT IN SEPTEMBER 2009, THE US FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE ANNOUNCED THAT ADDING THE WALRUS TO THE ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT MAY BE WARRANTED.

MAGELLANIC PENGUIN : - BEFORE HAND THE PENGUINS WERE AFFECTED DUE TO OIL SPILLAGE . BUT NOW MAGELLANIC PENGUINS (SPHENISCUS MAGELLANICUS), NOW FACE A LARGER THREAT A FISH ARE DISPLACED BY WARMING OCEAN CURRENTS,FORCING THE BIRDS TO SWIM FURTHER TO FIND FOOD. LAST YEAR HUNDREDS OF MAGELLANIC PENGUINS WASHED UP ON THE BEACHES AROUND RIO-DE JANERIO, DEAD SCIENTIST PREDICTED THAT CHANGES IN OCEAN CURRENTS OR TEMPERATURES, WHICH MAY BE RELATED TO CLIMATE CHANGE, COULD HAVE BEEN RESPONSIBLE FOR THEIR MOVEMENT MORE THAN A THOUSAND MILES NORTH OF THEIR TRADITIONAL NESTING AREA IN THE SOUTHERN TIP OF ARGENTINA TWELVE OUT OF THE 17 PENGUIN SPECIES ARE CURRENTLY EXPERIENCING RAPID POPULATION DECLINE.

LEATHER BACK TURTLE : - THE LARGEST MARINE TURTLE AND ONE OF THE LARGEST LIVING REPTILES, THE LEATHER BACK TURTLE,(DERMOCHELYS CORIACEATHE) HAS SURVIVED FOR MORE THAN A HUNDRED MILLION YEARS, BUT IS NOW FACING EXTINCTION. RECENT ESTIMATES OF NUMBERS SHOW THAT THIS SPECIES IS DECLINING, PARTICULARLY IN THE PACIFIC WHERE AS FEW AS 2300 ADULT FEMALES NOW REMAIN, MAKING THE PACIFIC LEATHERBACK THE WORLDS MOST ENDANGERED MARINE TURTLE POPULATION. ATLANTIC TURTLE POPULATIONS ARE MORE STABLE BUT SCIENTISTS PREDICT A DECLINE DUE TO THE LARGE NUMBERS OF ADULTS BEING CAUGHT AS BY CATCH AND KILLED ACCIDENTALLY BY FISHING FLEETS. ADDITIONALLY, RISING SEA LEVELS AND HIGHER TEMPERATURES ON ATLANTIC BEACHES POSE A NEW THREAT TO TURTULES AND THEIR OFFSPRING. NEST TEMPERATURE STRONGLY DETERMINES THE SEX OF OFFSPRING AND A NEST WARMING TREND IS REDUCING THE NUMBER OF MALE TURTLES. WWF AIMS TO CONSERVE LEATHER BACK TURTLE MIGRATORY PATHWAYS-BY WORKING WITH FISHERIES TO DECREASE BY CATCH BY PROTECTING CRITICAL NESTING BEACHES, AND BY RAISING AWARESNESS SO THAT LOCAL COMMUNITIES WILL PROTECT TURTLES AND THEIR NESTS.

BLUEFIN TUNA : - THE ATLANTIC BLUEFIN TUNA (THUNNUS THYNNUS) IS A LARGE MIGRATORY FISH FOUND IN THE WESTERN AND EASTERN ATLANTIC AND THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA BLUEFIN TUNA IS THE SOURCE OF HIGHEST GRADE SUSHI. BLUEFIN TUNA FISHERIS ARE NEAR COLLAPSE AND THE SPECIES AT SERIOUS RISK OF EXTINCTION IF UNSUSTAINABLE FISHING PRACTICES IN THE EASTERN ATLANTIC AND MEDITTERANEAN ARE NOT STOPPED. WWF IS ENCOURAGING RESTURANTS, CHEFS, RETAILERS, AND CONSUMERS TO STOP SERVING BUYING, SELLING, AND EATING ENDANGERED BLUEFIN TUNA UNTIL THIS AMAZING SPECIES SHOWS SIGNS OF RECOVERY.

MOUNTAIN GORILLA : - SCIENTISTS CONSIDER MOUNTAIN GORILLAS (GORILLA BERTINGEI BERINGEI) TO BE A CRITICALLY ENDANGERED GORILLA SUBSPECIES, WITH ABOUT 720 SURVIVING IN THE WILD. MORE THAN 200 LIVE IN THE VIRUNGA NATIONAL PARK, LOCATED IN THE EASTERN PART OF DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO, BORDERING RWANDA AND UGANDA. WAR HAS BEEN WAGED IN AREAS AROUND THE PARK; WITH GORILLAS SUBJECT TO THREATS LIKE POACHING AND LOSS OF HABITAT VIRUNGA POPULATION HAS BEEN RAISED BY 14 PERCENT IN THE LAST 12 YEARS WITH GREAT EFFORT. IN THE OTHER HAND THE BWINDI IMPENETRABLE FOREST IN UGANDA, HAS EXPERIENCED POPULATION INCREASES OF 12 PERCENT OVER THE PAST DECADE. DESPITE THIS SUCCESS, THE MOUNTAIN GORILLAS STATUS REMAINS ENDANGERED.

RESOURCE LIMITATIONS

IN BROAD TERMS, A RESOURCE , OR NATURAL RESOURCE, IS ANYTHING NEEDED FROM THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT BY AN ORGANISM OR A GROUP OR ORGANISMS. IN OTHER WORDS, A RESOURCE IS SOMETHING USEFUL FOR HUMANITY AT A PARTICULAR PLACE AND DURING A PARTICULAR TIME PERIOD. ITS USE CAN CHANGE BECAUSE OF TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICS AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS.

TECHNOLOGY CANNOT BRING BACK AN EXTINCT ANIMAL OR PLANT RESOURCE BY IMPROVING THEM, USING THEM MORE EFFICIENTLY OR RECYCLING THEM. FOR EXAMPLE, TODAY WE GET SEVEN TIMES MORE ELECTRIC POWER FROM ONE TONNE OF COAL THAN WE DID IN 1990. IN UNITED STATES,  IN 1990, ONLY 10 PERCENT OF THE COPPER WAS RECYCLED. TODAY ABOUT 40 PERCENT IS RECYCLED. HOWEVER, WHILE MANY NATURAL RESOURCES, SUCH AS COPPER LEAD OR SILVER CAN BE RECYCLED, WE CAN NEVER RECYCLE ENERGY RESOURCES.ONCE A FOSSIL FUEL RESOURCE, SUCH AS COAL, OIL OR NATURAL GAS IS BURNED, IT IS GONE FOREVER AS A USEFUL SOURCE OF ENERGY.

IN ADDITION OF TECHNOLOGY, RESOURCE USE IS CONNECTED TO ECONOMICS. SOMETHING IS USEFUL AS A RESOURCE ONLY IF IT IS MADE AVAILABLE AT A REASONABLE COST. FOR EXAMPLE, ONCE WE DEPLETE THE EASILY AVAILABLE SUPPLIES  OF A RESOURCE, WE HAVE TO LOOK HARDER AND DIG DEEPER TO FIND THE REMAINING SUPPLIES. IN THE COSTS OF FINDING AND MAKING A SCARCE RESOURCE AVAILABLE,THE RESOURCE WILL BECOME EVENTUALLY TOO EXPENSIVE FOR MOST PEOPLE. HIGHER COSTS MAY STIMULATE  MORE RESEARCH FOR NEW SUPPLIES OR MAKE PROCESSING OF LOWER GRADE DEPOSITS ECONOMICALLY FEASIBLE. BUT REGARDLESS OF WHAT WE ARE WILLING AND ABLE TO PAY,WE CANNOT GET A RESOURCE OUT OF THE EARTH IF IT IS NOT THERE.

THERE CAN ALSO BE AN ECONOMIC LIMIT TO RECYCLING. TYPICALLY RECYCLING IS CHEAPER THAN MINING VIRGIN MATERIAL, BUT ONLY IF THE MATERIAL TO BE RECYCLED IS NOT TOO  WIDELY DISPERSED. FOR EXAMPLE, IF PRODUCTS MADE FROM IRON AND STEEL, SUCH AS CARS AND TOYS AND THROWN AWAY, BURIED AND WIDELY SCATTERED THE USE OF LABOUR  AND ENERGY  COSTS INVOLVED IN SEARCHING AND COLLECTING THE OBJECTS MAY BE TOO EXPENSIVE TO MAKE RECYCLING FEASIBLE.

THE CONTINUITY IMPACT OF ITS MINING, PROCESSING AND THE USE IT HAS ON THE ENVIRONMENT. EVEN IF AFFORDABLE SUPPLIES OF A RESOURCE ARE AVAILABLE , ITS USE, AT LEAST IN CERTAIN PURPOSES, MAY HAVE TO BE ABANDONED IF IT THREATENS HUMAN AND OTHER FORMS OF LIFE SOMETIMES THE ENVIRONMENT EFFECTS OF A RESOURCE CAN BE MINIMIZED AND CLEANED UP , BUT THIS COSTS MONEY AND IN SOME CASES THE COST MAY BE SO HIGH THAT THE RESOURCE MAY NOT BE AFFORDABLE.

CONSERVING BIODIVERSITY FOR HUMAN SUSTENANCE

CONSERVING BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY IS IMPORTANT FOR REASONS OF BOTH PRINCIPLE AND HUMAN SELF INTEREST. BIODIVERSITY MUST BE CONSERVED TO HELP HUMANS ADAPT TO A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT. THE IMPORTANCE ASSIGNED TO CONSERVATION WILL DEPEND ON THE VALUES ASCRIBED TO SPECIES AND ECOSYSTEMS. IN THE PAST TWO DECADES THERE HAS BEEN CONSIDERABLE GROWTH IN UNDERSTANDING THE CONTEMPORARY PROCESS THAT HAS CREATED THE BIODIVERSITY ON EARTH AND THE CONTEMPORARY FACTORS THAT ARE LEADING TO ITS REDUCTION. THE VALUATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES, AND THE OVERALL EFFECTS OF MORE CHANGES IN HUMAN LIFE . THE GROWING TREND IS TOWARDS RATIONAL USE AND CONSERVATION OF THE BIOSPHERE AND ITS RESOURCES FOR THE  SUSTENANCE OF MANKIND.


THERE IS AN URGENT NEED TO COORDINATE WORLDWIDE EFFORTS IN THE RESEARCH OF THE EARTH'S BIODIVERSITY AND ITS GENETIC VALUES. SINCE WE KNOW SO LITTLE AND THE RATE OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS IS SO FAST THAT WE ARE AT A POINT OF LOSING MANY OF THE GENE POOLS MUCH BEFORE THEIR POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN WELFARE IS ESTABLISHED. IT IS IN THE INTEREST OF ALL NATIONS TO CONSERVE BIODIVERSITY FOR A BETTER FOOD SUPPLY AND FOR FUTURE SUSTENANCE. NO OTHER  DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME CAN BE MORE IMPORTANT THAN THAT OF BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION. ALL OVER THE WORLD, HUMAN CULTURE STRESSES ON THE IMPORTANCE OF RESPECTING AND CONSERVING THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT WITH ALL THE LIVING ORGANISMS INHABITIING IT NO MATTER HOW INSIGNIFICANT THEY MAY SEEM.

THE CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY IS CARRIED OUT THROUGH THE PROTECTION OF GENES, SPECIES AND THEIR NUMBERS IN POPULATION  ALONG WITH ECOSYSTEMS OR HABITATS. THE CONSERVATION  STEPS MUST HAVE A COMPONENT OF USE, WITHOUT WHICH THE CONCERNED HUMAN SOCIETY TENDS TO IGNORE THE GOVERNMENTAL AND SCIENTISTS EFFORTS. THERE MUST BE AN ACTIVE CONCERN OF PARTICIPATION BY THE COMMON MAN TOO. WHEN THE ELEMENT  OF USE COMES, THE NEED OF REGENERATION OF RESOURCE IS NECESSARY OTHERWISE THE RESOURCE WILL SOON EXHAUST. THE LEVEL OF UTILIZATION AND REGENERATION HAS TO BE BALANCED TO A SUITABLE LEVEL. THERE IS ALWAYS A LIMIT TO GROWTH.CONSERVATION STEPS MUST KEEP ON EYE ON THIS LIMIT IS CONCERNED USE AND CONSERVATION BALANCE.

BIODIVERSITY AND POLLUTION CONTROL

PLANTS AS NATURAL PURIFIERS AS THEY ACT AS CARBON SINKS AND OXYGEN SUPPLIERS. THEY HELP NOT ONLY MAINTAINING THE BALANCE OF GASES IN THE ATMOSPHERE BUT ALSO IN REDUCING THE EFFECT OF HARMFUL GASES THEY ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR MAINTAINING ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE AND REDUCE GREEN HOUSE EFFECT WHICH RESULTS INTO GLOBAL WARMING. 

FORESTS OF ALL KIND EXCHANGE MOISTURE AND ENERGY WITH THE ATMOSPHERE MORE INTENSIVELY THAN OTHER LAND SURFACE COVER. AS VEGETATION COVER DIMINISHES THERE IS LESS SCOPE FOR EVAPO-TRANSPIRATION AND LESS MOISTURE IS DISPATCHED INTO THE ATMOSPHERE FOR RECYCLING AS RAINFALL. IN ADDITION FORESTS INCREASE CLOUD COVER AND CLOUDS ALTER THE CLIMATE OF FOREST REGIONS IN TERMS OF TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL.

GREEN BELT PLANTATIONS ACT AS BUFFERS AND SHOCK ABSORBERS AGAINST DUST A NOISE IN URBAN, INDUSTRIAL AND MINING AREAS. A GREAT VARIETY OF TREES HELP IN THE REDUCTION OF AIR AND NOISE POLLUTION.

CERTAIN PLANTS ARE ABLE TO EXTRACT HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES SUCH AS ARSENIC, LEAD AND URANIUM FROM SOIL AND WATER. THE ALPINE PENNYCRESS (BRASSICACEAL) IS A PLANT THAT BIOACCUMULATES HIGH LEVELS OF CADMIUM AND ZINC FROM THE ENVIRONMENT. THE BRACKEN FERN EXTRACTS ARSENIC FROM THE SOIL AND STORES IT IN ITS FERN LEAVES AS MUCH AS 200 TIMES THAT PRESENT IN THE SOIL, ENABLING EFFECTIVE CLEAN UP PROGRAMMES. SUNFLOWERS WERE USED TO CLEAN UP URANIUM AFTER THE CHERNOBYL ACCIDENT.

COMPLEX MICROBIAL COMMUNITIES DEGRADE CERTAIN TOXIC CHEMICALS THROUGH A PROCESS CALLED BIODEGRADATION. SOME MICRO ORGANISMS THAT ARE ABLE TO DEGRADE TOXIC CHEMICALS ARE

• PSEUUDOMONAS DEGRADES TOXIC CHEMICALS LIKE HYDROCARBONS, BENZENE, NAPTHALENE AND ORGANOPHOSPHATES.
• ARTHROBACTER DEGRADES HYDROCARBONS, BENZENE, POLYCYCLIC AROMATICS.
• MYCROBACTERIUM DEGRADES CYCLOPARAFFINS AND AROMATICS MICROBIOLOGICAL DEGRADATION OF OIL SPILLS IS PRACTICAL USING A MIXTURE OF BACTERIAL STRAINS. IT IS ALSO USED FOR REMOVING GREASE DEPOSITED ON THE INNER SIDE OF THE TANKS IN OIL-CARRYING SHIPS.

MICROBIOLOGICAL DEGRADATION OF OIL SPILLS IS PRACTICAL USING A MIXTURE OF BACTERIAL STRAINS. IT IS ALSO USED FOR REMOVING GREASE DEPOSITED ON THE INNER SIDE OF THE TANKS IN OIL-CARRYING SHIPS.

MICRO ORGANISMS OR THEIR ENZYMES ARE USED IN POLLUTION ABATEMENT, BUT NOT ALL CONTAMINANTS ARE EASILY TREATED FOR EXAMPLE HEAVY METALS LIKE CADMIUM AND LEAD ARE NOT READILY ABSORBED OR CAPTURED BY THESE ORGANISMS. THE INTEGRATION ON OF METALS SUCH AS MERCURY IN THE FOOD CHAIN MAY MAKE THINGS WORSE AS ORGANISMS BIO-ACCUMULATE THESE METAL.

DISTRIBUTION OF GENETIC RICHNESS

THERE IS A HISTORICAL DISPROPORTION IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANT SPECIES. THOSE THAT ARE NOW CALLED AS INDUSTRIALIZED, DEVELOPED NORTH COUNTRIES ARE HISTORICALLY GENE POOR. ON THE OTHER HAND, THE DEVELOPING SOUTH COUNTRIES ARE GENE RICH COUNTRIES. TILL SOME CENTURIES AGO, MUCH OF THE PLANT DIVERSITY WAS CONCENTRATED BETWEEN THE TWO TROPICS, WITH A VERY FEW PLANT SPECIES IN THE CONTINENTAL EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA.

OVER THE YEARS, THE PRESENT DAY DEVELOPED COUNTRIES HAVE NOT ONLY SUCCEEDED IN ACCLIMATIZING PLANT SPECIES FOR FOOD, FIBRE AND MEDICINAL NEEDS, BUT ALSO IMPROVED THEIR PRODUCTIVITY. DEVELOPING COUNTRIES CONTRIBUTE 96 PERCENT OF THE WORLD'S TONNAGE IN FOOD THROUGH INTER DEPENDENCE AMONG REGIONS OF GENETIC DIVERSITY AND REGIONS OF CROP PRODUCTIVITY.

THE WILD FORESTS CONTAIN A TREMENDOUS VARIETY OF BIODIVERSITY AND ECONOMICALLY USEFUL PLANTS. THERE ARE HUNDREDS OF VARIETIES OF POTATOES, SWEET POTATOES, RICE, WITH UNEXPLORED GENETIC ABILITIES TO ADJUST TO NEW CLIMATES AND TO RESIST VARIOUS DISEASES. MOST OF THE CURRENTLY HIGH YIELDING RICE CULTIVARS HAVE BEEN MADE DISEASE RESISTANT BY THE TRANSFER OF RESISTANT GENES OBTAINED FROM AN INDIAN WILD RICE ORYZA NIVARA. HAD THIS ONE WILD INDIAN RICE BECOME EXTINCT BEFORE THE DISCOVERY OF ITS RESISTANT GENE, THE LOSS TO WOULD HAVE RUN INTO BILLIONS OF RUPEES PER YEAR THAT WOULD HAVE GONE ON PESTICIDES TO KILL THE PESTS.  WILD WHEAT HAS INCREASED THE PRODUCTION OF WHEAT TO THE TUNE OF 50 MILLION US DOLLARS ANNUALLY. A GENE FROM AN ETHIOPIAN BARLEY FOR RESISTANCE AGAINST YELLOW DWARF VIRUS HAS RESULTED IN THE SALE OF WHEAT GAINING 160 MILLION US DOLLARS ANNUALLY.

BIODIVERSITY AS A SOURCE OF MEDICINE

BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTS HAVE BEEN USED TO CURE DISEASE SINCE ANCIENT PERIODS OF HUMAN HISTORY. IN INDIA HERBAL REMEDIES ARE USED FOR EVERYDAY HOME CURES. THERE WAS A TIME WHEN MOST MEDICINAL COMPOUNDS CAME FROM PLANTS; THE POTENT HEART STIMULANT FROM FOXGLOVE AND OPIUM FROM THE POPPY PLANT. SINCE OVER PAST FIFTY YEARS, CHEMISTRY TOOK OVER FROM BOTANY WITH MOST NEW DRUGS BEING SYNTHESIZED IN PHARMACEUTICAL LABS. NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN PLANT TECHNOLOGY MAY SOON REVERSE THIS TREND. RESEARCHERS ARE WORKING TOWARDS MAKING PLANT-BASED VACCINES WOULD LIKELY BE CHEAPER AND EASY TO ADMINISTER.

THE INDIGENOUS TRIBES OF THE NORTHEASTERN STATES OF INDIA HAVE ALMOST 47 PER CENT OF FOREST COVER WHICH CONTAIN AN AMAZINGLY WIDE RANGE OF MEDICINAL PLANTS.

ONE OF THE MOST POPULAR PLANTS IN MEGHALAYA RAUVOLFIA SERPENTINA WHICH IS USED FOR REDUCING BLOOD PRESSURE, ACTS AS A TRANQUILIZER AND IS USED LOCALLY AS AN ANTIDOTE FOR SNAKE BITE. THE OIL OF THE TARAKTOGENOS KURTZII PLANT IS USED FOR THE TREATMENT OF LEPROSY. THE ROOT OF RAUVOLFIA CANESENCE AND THE LEAVES OF THE TABERNAMONTANA ARE USED TO CURE HEART AILMENTS. THE LEAVES OF TAXUS RACATA ARE EFFECTIVE AGAINST CANCER OF THE STOMACH.

IN 1785, A BRITISH PHYSICIAN ,WILLIAM WITHERING REPORTED THAT INGESTION OF DRIED LEAVES FROM THE FOXGLOVE PLANT EASED DROPSY, AN ACCUMULATION OF FLUID KNOWN TO BE  CAUSED BY HEART'S FAILURE TO PUMP ADEQUATELY DIGITALIS IS USED FOR CARDIAC PATIENTS. TODAY TWO OF ITS COMPONENTS- THE GLYCOSIDES DIGOXIN AND DIGITOXIN ARE WIDELY PRESCRIBED TO MILLIONS OF PEOPLE ALL OVER THE WORLD. EXPLORATIONS MADE IN THE MEDICINAL USES OF PLANTS BY INDIGENOUS PEOPLE IN REMOTE PARTS OF THE WORLD ALONG WITH INTRODUCTION OF SOPHISTICATED ASSAYS ABLE TO DETERMINE WHETHER PLANTS EXERT A BIOLOGICAL EFFECT; HAS FACILITATED THE DISCOVERY OF BIOACTIVE MOLECULES MADE BY MEDICINAL PLANTS. SOME OF THESE MOLECULES PROMISE POSSIBLE THERAPIES FOR A RANGE OF DISEASES, INCLUDING, AIDS AND CANCER.

EFFORTS MADE BY MAN FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF BIODIVERSITY

THE GROWING NEEDS OF THE EXPANDING POPULATION OF THE WORLD, FOR MORE FOOD AND RAW MATERIALS HAVE MOTIVATED MAN TO SEARCH FOR WAYS AND MEANS TO TAP VARIOUS SOURCES TO ENSURE A STEADY  SUPPLY OF FOOD AND OTHER RESOURCES. OLD TECHNOLOGIES LIKE FERMENTATION, PLANT, BREEDING, ETC., IS GIVING WAY TO MODERN TECHNOLOGIES LIKE BIOTECHNOLOGY, TISSUE CULTURE,ETC. THE APPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES IN PROCESSING OF MATERIALS BY BIOLOGICAL AGENTS TO PROVIDE GOODS AND SERVICES IS A BROAD CONCERN OF BIOTECHNOLOGY.

PLANT BREEDING AND CROP IMPROVEMENT DEVELOPMENT OF NEW VARIETIES OF CROPS INCLUDES CREATION OF GENETIC VARIATION BY COMBINING DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS IN ONE PLANT AND THEN MULTIPLYING IT. THE PLANT BREEDER MAKES A SELECTION OF PLANTS WITH DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS, CROSSES THEM AND THEN IDENTIFIES THE OFFSPRING THAT COMBINE THE ATTRIBUTES OF BOTH PARENTS. THE PROGENY IS THEN MULTIPLIED TO BE SUPPLIED TO FARMERS, GROWERS AND PLANTERS. CROP IMPROVEMENT IS ACHIEVED THROUGH SUPERIOR HEREDITY.CREATION OF GENETIC VARIATION CAN BE DONE THROUGH THE FOLLOWING METHODS.

• SELECTION  : - THE DIFFERENTIAL REPRODUCTION OF INDIVIDUALS IN A POPULATION .
• HYBRIDIZATION : - THE CROSSING OF TWO VARIETIES SPECIES OR GENERA HAVING DESIRED GENES AND BRINGING TOGETHER THE USEFUL CHARACTERS OF THESE INTO ONE PROGENY, THE HYBRID. BOTANISTS GENERALLY USED THE TERM HYBRID TO SPECIALLY REFER TO CROSSES MADE BETWEEN SPECIES BUT GENETICISTS USE THE TERM TO REFER TO INDIVIDUALS THAT ARE HETEROZYGOUS EVEN FOR A SINGLE.
• POLYPLOID BREEDING : - IT OCCURS IN ORGANISMS WHEN THE NUMBER OF COMPLETE CHROMOSOME SETS IS HIGHER THAN TWO.POLYPLOIDY IN SEXUALLY REPRODUCING ORGANISMS MAY ARISE BY THE FERTILIZATION OF AN EGG BY MORE THAN ONE SPERM.
• INDUCED MUTATIONS : - GENE AND CHROMOSOME MUTATIONS MAY BE INDUCED BY SEVERAL MUTAGENS, WHICH ARE ALL FORMS OF ENERGY THAT DISRUPT THE CHEMICAL STRUCTURE  OF CHROMOSOMES, EXAMPLE X-RAYS, UV RAYS, GAMMA  RAYS AND COSMIC RAYS.
• TISSUE CULTURE : - THE ABILITY TO INDUCE MORPHOGENESIS AND REGENERATE WHOLE PLANTS BY CULTURING A FEW CELLS OR TISSUES.
• GENETIC ENGINEERING : - IT COMPRISES POWERFUL TECHNIQUES WHICH THEORETICALLY  ALLOW ANY GENE TO MOVE FROM ONE ORGANISM TO ANOTHER. RECOMBINANT DNA HAS THE POTENTIAL TO TRANSFORM THE GENES INTO A GLOBAL RESOURCES THAT CAN BE USED TO SHAPE NORMAL LIFE FORMS.

 THE GENETIC ENGINEERING IS PROMOTING A TECHNO-CENTRIC VERSION OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE WITH INCREASED PRODUCTIVITIES ACHIEVED THROUGH IMPROVED VARIETIES, AS WELL AS DECREASED INPUT COSTS AND DECLINING ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS.

LATHROUGH VARIOUS MODERN TECHNIQUES, TODAY THE FARMERS CAN PRODUCE LARGER YIELDS THAT COULD GO A LONG WAY IN MEETING GLOBAL FOOD REQUIREMENTS. PEST RESISTANT VARIETIES OF CROPS WILL PROMISE SUSTAINED PRODUCTIVITY. THE QUALITY OF CROPS CAN BE INCREASED IN POOR SOILS BY USING MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI  THAT ENHANCE MINERAL ABSORPTION BY PLANTS. INTRODUCTION OF QUICK-GROWING VARIETIES OF CROPS HAS NOT ONLY INCREASED PRODUCTION OF CROPS BUT HAS MADE THEM LESS PRONE TO DISEASE AND DAMAGE FROM ENVIRONMENTAL CAUSES. BIOTECHNOLOGY MIGHT HELP COUNTRIES IN DEVELOPING HIGHER YIELDING CROPS THAT ARE ADAPTED TO VARIOUS FARMING CONDITIONS AND ENVIRONMENTS. DROUGHT RESISTANT VARIETIES WILL REDUCE PRESSURE ON SCARCE WATER SUPPLIES. GENETIC MODIFICATION IN PNT CROPS HAS HELPED IN ACHIEVING HIGHER YIELDS AND BETTER QUALITY OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES WITH ENHANCED NUTRITIONAL VALUE , THAT STAY NOT ONLY FRESH FOR LONGER PERIODS BUT TASTE BETTER THROUGH AGRI-HORTICULTURE AND AGRO-BOTANICAL PRACTICES. TODAY OIL CROPS HAVE AN INCREASED IN MONOUNSATURATED AND POLYUNSATURATED FATS FOR BETTER HEALTH IN HUMAN CONSUMPTION.

ADVANCEMENT IN BIOTECHNOLOGY CAN ALSO HELP IN IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF ANIMAL FEED IN ORDER TO IMPROVE THEIR NUTRITION. IT CAN ENSURE BETTER INDUSTRIAL RAW MATERIALS WHICH WILL BE MORE ECO-FRIENDLY AND SAVE THE EARTH FROM HARMFUL ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION AND POLLUTION , SUCH AS USE OF BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS MADE FROM PLANT STARCHES. DEPENDENCE ON PETROLEUM BY-PRODUCTS CAN BE REDUCED BY USING OILSEED CROPS WHICH COULD PROVIDE NECESSARY RAW MATERIALS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF VARIOUS PRODUCTS LIKE LUBRICANTS, POLYMERS, LINKS, COSMETICS AND PHARMACEUTICALS.

PLANT AND ANIMAL DIVERSITY FOR HUMAN SUSTENANCE

CIVILIZATION TOOK ITS  BIRTH WHEN MAN DISCOVERED  FIRE ALONG WITH HIS ENDEAVOUR TO CULTIVATE CROPS AND TO DOESTICATE ANIMALS FOR AN ASSURED SUSTENANCE. THE GRADUAL DEVELOPMENT OF MAN'S CIVILIZATION CAN BE TRACED TO THE MANAGEMENT OF ASSURED FOOD. SUPPLY BY DELIBERATE PLANTING OF CROPS AND BY HARVESTING AND STORING THE PRODUCE . THE PRESENT DAY CEREALS, GRAINS, LEGUMES(PULSES) OR OILSEED CROPS ARE MAINLY RAISED FOR A SINGLE PURPOSE, THAT IS FOOD. HOWEVER, EARLY HUMANS GREATLY VALUED PLANTS WITH MULTIPLE USES SUCH AS, COCONUT PALM, DATE PALM, BAOBAB, MULBERRY, AGAVES, AND HEMP. THE COCONUT PALM STILL SUPPORTS PEOPLE LIVING IN COASTAL AREAS DUE TO ITS MULTIPLE PURPOSES.

AGRICULTURE ORIGINATED SOME 7,000 TO 13,000 YEARS AGO,SOMEWHERE IN THE INDUS, TIGRIS AND EUPHRATES AND THE NILE RIVER VALLEYS. THE YELLOW RIVER BASIN OF MODERN CHINA AND THE TEHUACAN VALLEY IN MODERN MEXICO ARE THE OTHER PREHISTORIC SITES OF ANCIENT AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITY. ALL EARLY CIVILIZATIONS WHOSE DIETS ARE  KNOWN TO US WERE BASED ON SEED PRODUCTION PLANTS SUCH AS WHEAT, MAIZE AND RICE. NEARLY ALL THE PRESENT DAY CROP PLANTS WERE DEVELOPED IN PREHISTORIC TIMES. WILD SPECIES OF PLANTS WERE CULTIVATED, DOMESTICATED AND SELECTIVE PRODUCTION OF THESE SPECIES WAS MADE. THERE ARE OVER 3,000 SPECIES OF FOOD PLANTS KNOWN TO US, OUT OF WHICH ONLY 150 ARE COMMERCIALIZED OR THAT ONLY LESS THAN 20 SPECIES PRODUCE 85 PERCENT OF THE FOOD OUTPUT. DIFFERENT PARTS OF A PLANT ARE USED IN DIFFERENT WAYS AS FOOD. IN GENERAL, THE SEEDS AND FRUITS ARE THE MOST NUTRITIOUS PARTS BUT THE LEAVES STEMS AND ROOTS OF SOME PLANTS ARE ALSO EATEN.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE REVEALS THAT CEREALS ORIGINATED IN THE MOUNTANIOUS REGIONS OF ASIA, EUROPE, AFRICA AND SOUTH AMERICA. CEREALS, THE GRAIN PRODUCING PLANTS, ARE THE MOST IMPORTANT COMPONENTS OF OUR DIET. THE TRUE CEREALS ARE ALL MEMBERS OF THE GRASS FAMILY. WITHOUT THESE ESSENTIAL CROPS IT WOULD BE DIFFICULT TO FEED THE WORLD. WHEAT, CORN AND RICE MAKE UP TWO THIRDS OF THE CARBOHYDRATES WE CONSUME. OTHER CEREALS INCLUDE RYE, OATS, BARELY, SORGHUM, MILLETS.

FROM THE EARLIEST OF TIMES CERTAIN PLANTS HAVE PROVIDED OIL FOR COOKING AND LIGHTING. TODAY A WIDE RANGE OF CROPS ARE GROW N FOR THEIR OIL SUCH AS SOYABEANS, COCONUT SEED, PEANUT, SUNFLOWER, MUSTARD, GRAPE SEED, SESAME, SAFFLOWER AND OIL PALM AND WIDELY USED. THE COMMERCIAL FARMING OF OIL PRODUCING PLANTS RECEIVED A TREMENDOUS BOOST WITH THE INVENTION OF MARGARINE, TOWARDS THE END OF THE 19th CENTURY. DURING THE LAST TWENTY YEARS, VEGETABLE OILS HAVE RECEIVED FURTHER BOOST AS WE BECOME MORE CONSCIOUS OF MAINTAINING OUR HEALTH. IN TROPICAL REGIONS OF AFRICA AND ASIA, ESPECIALLY IN INDONESIA AND MALAYSIA, OIL PALM IS WIDELY CULTIVATED FOR COOKING OIL. THE MEDITERRANEAN REGIONS ARE THE MAIN PRODUCERS OF OLIVE OIL.

ONLY A FEW SELECTED SPECIES OF ANIMALS ARE IMPORTANT IN TERMS OF ANIMALS ARE IMPORTANT IN TERMS OF AGRICULTURE. CATTLE PROVIDE US WITH MORE THAN EIGHT TIMES AS MUCH FOOD IN THE FORM OF MILK THAN IN THE FORM OF MEAT. PIGS ARE THE MOST EFFICIENT MEAT BREEDERS. SHEEP AND GOATS ARE THE MOST VERSATILE LIVESTOCK, PROVIDING MEAT, MILK AND WOOL. POULTRY HAS LONG BEEN A SOURCE OF MEAT AND EGGS. IN TERMS OF INCREASING PRODUCTIVITY, CHICKEN IS THE FASTEST GROWING FOODSTUFF IN THE WORLD AND DOMINATES THE WORLD'S POULTRY POPULATION; 98 PERCENT OF ALL FARMED BIRDS ARE CHICKEN.

FISH REPRESENTS THE ONLY SIGNIFICANT SOURCE OF HUMAN FOOD THAT STILL RELIES ON NATURAL FOOD CHAINS. OUR ATTITUDE TO THE SEA IS STILL THAT OF A HUNTER-GATHERER. MODERN FISHING METHODS ARE EXTREMELY EFFICIENT AND OVER FISHING IS NOW THE INDUSTRIES GREATEST PROBLEM. MOST OF THE FISH WE EAT STAND FAIRLY HIGH IN THE IN THE OCEANS FOOD CHAINS. THEY OCCUR IN THE GREATEST NUMBERS IN THE COASTAL WATER WHICH IS WARM AND HENCE PLANT LIFE IS MOST ABUNDANT. THIS AREA ALSO ACCUMULATES RUN-OFF OF NUTRIENTS FROM THE LAND.

FRUITS AND VEGETABLES NOT ONLY PROVIDE VARIETY TO OUR DIET BUT ABOUND IN VITAMINS AND MINERALS. SOME FRUITS ARE GROWN FOR SUBSISTENCE, SOME AS STAPLE CROPS LIKE, POTATOES AND CASSAVA, WHILE PINNAPLES AND BANANAS ARE GROWN AS CASH  CROPS AND TURNIPS AS WINTER FEED LIVESTOCK. THE MOST USEFUL VEGETABLES ARE PULSES, ALSO KNOWN AS LEGUMES. THIS IS A GROUP OF PLANTS THAT INCLUDES PEAS, BEANS, LENTILS AND SOYABEANS. THEY PROVIDE MUCH MORE PROTEIN THAN CEREALS AND THEY ALSO PUT BACK NUTRIENTS INTO THE SOIL. FUTURE ADVANCES WILL PROBABLY INVOLVE MAKING USE OF NEW CROPS. THESE INCLUDE THE WINGED BEAN, OF WHICH ALL PARTS CAN BE EATEN. SUGARCANE WAS INTRODUCED INTO AMERICA 300 YEARS AGO AND PRIOR TO THAT HONEY WAS THE MAJOR SOURCE OF SUGAR AND BEES WERE WIDELY KEPT. 66 PER CENT OF THE WORLD'S SUGAR COMES FROM  CANE, THOUGH SUGAR BEET IS ALSO VERY IMPORTANT ESPECIALLY IN EUROPE. BROWN SUGAR FROM DATE PALMS AND OTHER PALMS ARE USED FOR LOCAL CONSUMPTION.

 

BIODIVERSITY FOR SUSTENANCE OF MANKIND

FOR MILLIONS OF YEARS HUMANS HAVE DEPENDED ON BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS PLANTS, ANIMALS, AND MICRO-ORGANISMS, FOR FOOD, MEDICINES AND INDUSTRIAL  PRODUCTS.OVER THE YEARS, PARTICULARLY DURING THE LAST FEW DECADES, THIS IMPORTANT CAPITAL STOCK ON WHICH HUMAN LIFE DEPENDS HAS BEEN SUBJECTED TO IRREPLACABLE LOSS. IRONICALLY THESE LOSSES OCCURED, UNNOTICED AND UNAPPRECIATED, BY THE VERY DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESS THAT SOCIETIES ACHIEVED. BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS CAN REPRODUCE, UNLIKE OTHER RESOURCES,BUT WHAT CANNOT BE EASILY REPRODUCED IS THE VARIETY OF LIFE FORMS WHICH ORIGINATE AND ARE SUSTAINED BY A PROCESS OF NATURAL AND SOCIAL SELECTION, AND THEIR INTER-RELATIONSHIPS.

BIODIVERSITY IS ESSENTIAL FOR HUMAN SELF INTEREST, AS HIS OWN SUSTENANCE IS INVOLVED. IT SUSTAINS MAN, BECAUSE ECOSYSTEMS FUNCTION AS THE PLANETARY LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEM, RENEWING ATMOSPHERIC OXYGEN AND PLAYING A CENTRAL PART IN THE BIOCHEMICAL CYCLE. THEY ARE THE SOURCE OF FIBRE, FOOD, TIMBER, NATURAL DRUGS AND  OTHER PRODUCTS; THEY CONSERVE SOIL AND THEY SHELTER GENETIC STRAINS TO WHICH CROP BREEDERS CONTINUALLY RETURN IN ORDER TO IMPROVE CULTIVATED VARIETIES.

BIODIVERSITY IN ALL ITS FORMS AND ABUNDANCE PROVIDES FOR THE SUSTENANCE OF MANKIND, BUT, THIS IS NOT POSSIBLE WHEN THE ENVIRONMENT SUFFERS FROM VARIOUS KINDS OF POLLUTION AND DEGRADATION. THE OZONE DEPLETION HAS LED TO ENHANCED UV-B RADIATIONS WHICH NOT ONLY KILL SMALLER LIFE FORMS BUT ALSO AFFECT THE GENES OF PLANTS, ANIMALS AND MAN.

NEED TO UNDERSTAND THE BALANCE IN NATURE

UP TO THE ADVENT OF CIVILIZED MAN, THE BIOSPHERE OF THE WORLD CONSISTED OF A COMPLEX PATTERN OF BIOTIC COMMUNITIES RESPONSIVE TO A VARIETY OF ENVIRONMENTS. THE HARMONY PREVAILING BETWEEN THE BIOTIC AND PHYSICAL REALMS WAS THE RESULT OF HUNDREDS OF MILLIONS OF YEARS OF EVOLUTION AND ADJUSTMENT OF ONE ORGANISM TO ANOTHER AND OF EACH TO THE HABITAT  IN WHICH IT LIVED. THIS RELATIONSHIP WAS IMPERATIVE AN OCCASIONAL OUTBREAK OF A SPECIES AS A RESULT OF SOME TEMPORARY ADVANTAGE, OR A CATASTROPHE TO A POPULATION AS A RESULT OF CHANGE TO THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT WERE NORMALLY BROUGHT TO A BALANCE. PRIMITIVE MAN OCCUPIED A NICHE AND ASSUMED A ROLE COMPARABLE TO OTHER ANIMALS AND THE ECOSYSTEM MAINTAINED IN A HEALTHY CONDITION.

MODERN MAN, HOWEVER, HAS INITIATED A NUMBER OF ABRUPT CHANGES DURING THE LAST FEW CENTURIES BEYOND THE CAPACITY OF THE ECOSYSTEM TO ADJUST ITSELF  TO THESE FORM OF CHANGES. HE HAS BECOME THE DOMINANT ORGANISM, IN THE BIOSPHERE, FORCING  CHANGES TO FIT HIS NEEDS AND DESIRES, AND CREATING ECOSYSTEMS DIFFERENT THAN  ANY THAT HAVE EXISTED BEFORE. EMERGENCE OF NEW COMMUNITIES IS A CHARACTERISTIC OF THE GEOSPHERE, BUT THE REPLACEMENT OF THE BIOSPHERE BY AN ANTHROPOSPHERE IS UNIQUE IN THE SPEED AND EXTREME CHANGES PRODUCED. THIS ACQUISITION OF DOMINANCE IS THE RESULT OF THE EXTRAORDINARY EVALUATION IN MAN OF INTELLIGENCE, INGENUITY AND USE OF TOOLS. HE HAS GREATLY MODIFIED OR REPLACED THE NATURAL PROCESSES THAT CONTROL STABILITY AND BALANCE WITHIN THE ECOSYSTEM WITH NEW PROCESSES AND MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS WHICH THE ENVIRONMENT CANNOT ABSORB. AS A RESULT THERE IS A GREAT DETERIORATION IN THE QUALITY OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND A  POPULATION EXPLOSION  OF THE HUMAN SPECIES, AND A DISHARMONY IN THE WORLD ECOSYSTEMS WHICH CLEARLY INDICATES AN IMMINENT CATASTROPHE.

THE NEXT FEW DECADES WILL DECIDE WHETHER MAN WILL SURVIVE AS A DOMINANT ORGANISM OR BE REDUCED TO THE ROLE HE OCCUPIED AS A PRIMITIVE MAN OR HE MAY BECOME EXTINCT. THERE IS A CONFLICT BETWEEN THE DEMANDS OF MAN FOR EXPANDING POPULATION, PRODUCTIVITY, POWER AND PLEASURES AND THE FUNCTIONING OFF NATURAL LAWS FOR MAINTAINING STABILITY AND EQUILIBRIUM BETWEEN THE LIVING AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT.

CONSERVATION OF AN ECOSYSTEM, VERY OFTEN MEANS ITS MAINTENANCE IN ITS NATURAL STATE. IN A NATURAL STATE, AN ECOSYSTEM HAS A BALANCED POPULATION OF PREDATORS AND PREY, DOMINANT AND SUB-DOMINANT SPECIES. EACH SPECIES IN SUCH AN ENVIRONMENT WILL COME TO TERMS WITH ALL THE OTHER SPECIES OF THE AREA. MANY OF THE ANIMAL AND BIRD SANCTUARIES ESTABLISHED IN SEVERAL PARTS OF OUR COUNTRY  AND THROUGH OUT THE WORLD AIM AT MAINTAINING THE ECOLOGICAL BALANCE. IN FACT, THERE IS NO BETTER METHOD OF CONSERVATION THAN LETTING THE ECOSYSTEM BE AS IT IS.

IMMEDIATE PROBLEMS OF CONCERNS IN THE PRESERVATION OF NATURAL ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ARE THE ELIMINATION OF AIR, WATER, SOIL AND NOISE POLLUTION; THE DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTES; AND CLIMATE MODIFICATON ON A GLOBAL SCALE. POLLUTION CAUSED BY MAN'S ACTIVITIES CHANGES THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT AND ALTERS THE NORMAL FUNCTIONING OF AN ECOSYSTEM. IN ORDER TO ATTAIN STABILIZED AND BALANCED ECOSYSTEMS WORLDWIDE, HUMAN POPULATION HAS TO BE CONTROLLED AND REGULATED AND THE HABITAT OF THE COMMUNITIES OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS HAS TO BE CONSERVED. THE IMMEDIATE NEED IS TO FOCUS ATTENTION ON IMPLEMENTATION OF NECESSARY REMEDIAL MEASURES WHICH WILL INVOLVE INTEGRATED EFFORTS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, LAW, SOCIOLOGY, POLITICS AND ECONOMICS.

DISTURBANCE OF BALANCE IN NATURE

ECOSYSTEMS IN THEIR NATURAL STATE CONSIST OF INTEGRATED AND LARGELY SELF-REGULATING COMMUNITIES OF ORGANISMS IN BALANCE WITH THEIR CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTS.ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES DOMINATE THE GLOBAL CYCLE OF OXYGEN, CARBON, NITROGEN, PHOSPHORUS, AND SULPHUR ELEMENTS THAT ARE ESSENTIAL TO LIFE. UNDER NATURAL CONDITIONS, CARBON AND NUTRIENTS ARE FIXED INTO LIVING BIOMASS. WHEN ECOSYSTEMS ARE PLACED UNDER STRESS, SUCH AS DRAINAGE, CULTIVATION, FIRE OR TIMBER HARVESTING THEY TEND TO SIMPLIFY, RELEASING CARBON AND NUTRIENTS CAUSING LOSS OF SPECIES. ALTERATION OF THE GLOBAL CARBON CYCLE DUE TO DEFORESTATION AND OTHER VEGETATION CHANGES MAY RESULT INTO GREENHOUSE EFFECT IN THE ATMOSPHERE AND GLOBAL WARMING.

WETLANDS SUCH AS RIVERS, LAKES, MARSHES, SWAMPS,SWAMP WOODLANDS, MANGROVES AND SHALLOW WATER ESTUARINE AND MARINE AREAS ARE AMONG THE MOST PRODUCTIVE HABITATS IN THE WORLD. THESE ECOSYSTEMS ARE THE PRIME TARGETS FOR HUMAN INTERFERENCE IN BUILDING RESERVOIRS AND HYDROELECTRIC DAMS, OR THEY ARE DRAINED FOR AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES AND FOR URBANIZATION OR FOR DEVELOPING HARBOURS AND MINING.

IN THE PHILIPPINES, MARI CULTURE WAS RESPONSIBLE FOR 80 PER CENT OF THE SUBSTANTIAL LOSS OF MANGROVES BETWEEN 1952 AND 1997;IN THAILAND THE MANGROVE AREA HAS DIMINISHED BY MORE THAN 40 PER CENT. IN OTHER PLACES CUTTING OF MANGROVE POLES AND RECLAMATION FOR URBAN OR INDUSTRIAL USES HAVE BEEN SIGNIFICANT. THE SUNDERBANS FOREST OF INDIA AND BANGLADESH ARE DECLINING DUE TO CONSTRUCTION OF IRRIGATION PROJECTS,BARRAGES AND OTHER USES OF THE FRESH WATERS OF GANGES. SIMILAR EXAMPLES IN MANY PARTS OF THE DEVELOPING WORLD HAS RESULTED IN SERIOUS CONSEQUENCES AS MANGROVE HABITATS PROTECT THE COASTS FROM STORM SURGES AND ARE ALSO MAJOR FISH NURSERIES.CLEAR FELLING ON A LARGE SCALE IS A MAJOR THREAT TO THE MANGROVES THROUGHOUT THE TROPICS. THIS BRINGS CONSEQUENCES RISK TO COASTLINES WHICH WILL BE AGGRAVATED IF SEA LEVEL RISES. DESPITE THE IMPORTANCE OF GOODS AND SERVICES WHICH WETLANDS PROVIDE THEY ARE CONSIDERED AS A HINDRANCE TO DEVELOPMENT. THEY LOST OR ALTERED BECAUSE OF THE DISRUPTION OF NATURAL PROCESS BY AGRICULTURAL INTESIFICATION , URBANIZATION, POLLUTION, DAM CONSTRUCTION, REGIONAL WATER TRANSFERS AND OTHER FORMS OF INTERVENTION IN THE ECOLOGICAL AND HYDROLOGICAL SYSTEM.

ENGINEERING THE LANDSCAPE HAS GREATLY DISRUPTED THE EARTH'S BALANCE. THE EARTH CONTAINS A HUGE RANGE OF MINERAL TREASURES SUCH AS COAL, OIL, URANIUM, IRON, ALUMINIUM ,RAW, MATERIALS FOR CONCRETE AND GLASS, ALL HAVE TO BE EXTRACTED FROM THE EARTH. MINING SPELLS DISASTER FOR THE SURROUNDING HABITAT, HUMANS AND MACHINES FELL TREES AND TEAR OPEN THE LAND USUALLY CAUSING LONG TERM DAMAGE. HUGE GAPING HOLES ARE DUG INTO THE GROUND' DISFIGURING THE LANDSCAPE FOR MANY YEARS. THE SURROUNDING AREA BECOMES DOTTED WITH UNSIGHTLY SLAG HEAPS, ARTIFICIAL HILLS MADE OF MUD AND CRUMBLING STONE.

IN SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA THE RAIN FORESTS ARE BEING BURNED DOWN TO CREATE VAST CATTLE RANCHES. THIS IS GOING TO RESULT IN SOIL EROSION CAUSED BY HEAVY RAINS. EXPERTS BELIEVE THAT WITHIN 10 YEARS, NOT EVEN GRASS WILL GROW WHERE GIANT TREES ONCE STOOD. MANY SCIENTISTS FEAR THAT HUGE AREAS THAT HAVE ALREADY BEEN CLEARED WILL NEVER REGROW. THE AREA COULD BECOME A DESERT. THESE FORESTS CONTAIN HUGE MASSES OF PHOTOSYNTHETIC VEGETATION AND THEY RECYCLE THOUSANDS OF TONS OF CARBON DIOXIDE AND OXYGEN EVERY DAY. OVER 75 PER CENT OF THE RAIN THAT FALLS ON THESE FORESTS IS RETURNED TO THE ATMOSPHERE THROUGH EVAPO-TRANSPIRATION. PRESERVING THESE FORESTS IS NOT ONLY IMPORTANT FOR THE EARTH'S ECOLOGICAL BALANCE BUT ALSO FOR SAVING LIFE ON THE EARTH.

OVER FISHING AND EXCESSIVE HARVESTING OF WHALES, DOLPHINS, SEALS AND POLAR BEARS IS ONE OF THE CLEAREST EXAMPLES OF OVER-EXPLOITATION OF MARINE RESOURCES. MODERN FISHING METHODS ARE EXTREMELY EFFICIENT AND HARVESTING THE SEA IS NOW AS MECHANIZED AS HARVESTING THE LAND. THE CROP OF THE WILD FISHES IS ON THE DECLINE DUE TO OVER-FISHING, MOST OF THE FISH WE EAT  COMES FROM FISH FARMS. TRAWLING AND SEINING ARE TWO MOST IMPORTANT FISHING TECHNIQUES. FISH ARE PURSUED OFTEN BY MEANS OF ECHO-LOCATION EQUIPMENT. A TAWL NET MAY BE DRAWN BY ONE OR TWO SHIPS. SINCE . SINCE, BOTH PELAGIC AND DEMERSAL FISH ARE CAUGHT BY TRAWLERS HUGE QUANTITIES ARE HARVESTED. OVER-FISHING IS NOT ONLY ABOUT NUMBERS OF FISH BUT CATCHING TOO MANY SMALL(YOUNG) FISH CAUSES THE POPULATION AS A HOLE TO DECLINE THUS UPSETTING THE BALANCE.  

HABITAT AND ECOLOGICAL NICHE

HABITAT IS THE AREA WHERE A SPECIES IS BIOLOGICALLY ADAPTED TO LIVE. THE HABITAT TO A GIVEN  SPECIES OR POPULATION IS MARKED BY THE PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL FEATURES OF ITS ENVIRONMENT SUCH AS THE VEGETATION, CLIMATIC CONDITIONS, PRESENCE OF WATER AND MOISTURE, SOIL TYPE, ETC.

HOW DO SO MANY SPECIES LIVE TOGETHER IN AN ECOSYSTEM WITHOUT FIERCE COMPETITION TAKING PLACE?

SPECIES EAT OTHER SPECIES OF COURSE, BUT THIS DOES NOT LEAD GENERALLY TO EXTERMINATION OF SPECIES. THE REASON IS THAT EACH SPECIES IN AN ECOSYSTEM HAS FOUND ITS HABITAT AND, WHAT IS MORE, ITS OWN ECOLOGICAL NICHE WITHIN THE HABITAT.

THE ECOLOGICAL NICHE IS CHARACTERIZED BY THE PARTICULAR FOOD HABITS, SHELTER-SEEKING METHODS, WAYS OF NESTING AND REPRODUCTION, ETC., OF THE SPECIES. IT INCLUDES ALL ASPECTS OF THE ORGANISM'S EXISTENCE-ALL THE PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, AND BIOLOGICAL FACTORS THAT IT NEEDS IN ORDER TO LIVE AND REPRODUCE. WHEN DIFFERENT SPECIES LIVE IN THE SAME HABITAT, COMPETITION MAY BE SLIGHT OR EVEN NON-EXISTENT, BECAUSE EACH HAS ITS OWN ECOLOGICAL NICHE. 

THREAT TO ECOLOGICAL BALANCES AND SURVIVAL THRESHOLDS

ANY ECOSYSTEM, NO MATTER HOW RESILIENT, CAN BE PUSHED TO A POINT OF NO RETURN OR, MORE EXACTLY, TO A THRESHOLD BEYOND WHICH LIMITING FACTORS BECOME A SEVERELY OPERATIVE THAT RECOVERY, IN PERIODS MEANINGFUL IN THE HUMAN TIME SCALE BECOME IMPOSSIBLE. FOR EXAMPLE, SOIL EROSION ON MOUNTAIN SIDES MAY REACH A POINT WHERE BED ROCK IS EXPOSED. WHEN THIS SITUATION TAKES PLACE, ONLY THE SLOW PROCESS OF PRIMARY BIOTIC SUCCESSION, WHICH HAVE BEEN OPERATING FOR CENTURIES OR MILLENNIA, CAN BUILD THE SOIL AND VEGETATION. ANOTHER THRESHOLD PROCESS, TYPICAL OF MANY AREAS, IS SOIL LATERIZATION, WHICH CAN ONLY BE ARRESTED ECONOMICALLY AT CERTAIN EARLY STAGES.ONCE A TOUGH LAYER OF LATERITE IS EXPOSED OR FORMED, RECOVERY MAY NO LONGER BE FEASIBLE. COMMUNITIES MAY REPAIR  THEMSELVES, WITH MODERATE PROTECTION, UP TO A CERTAIN POINT. BEYOND A CERTAIN LEVEL OF ABUSE OR DISTURBANCE, BIOLOGICAL REPAIR BECOMES, IN HUMAN TERMS, AN INTOLERABLY SLOW PROCESS.

CONSISTENT OVER-CROPPING OF ANY SPECIES CAN REDUCE ITS NUMBER TO LEVELS FROM WHICH RECOVERY IS NO LONGER POSSIBLE. KILLING THE LAST INDIVIDUAL ANIMAL OR CUTTING THE LAST TREE OF A SPECIES MAY NOT BE NEEDED  TO BRING ABOUT EXTINCTION. IF ANIMAL POPULATIONS ARE REDUCED TO A LEVEL AT WHICH EFFECTIVE BREEDING  DOES NOT OCCUR, OR IF THE HABITAT OF A SPECIES IS DESTROYED, RECOVERY WILL NOT TAKE PLACE, EVEN THOUGH SOME INDIVIDUALS WILL SURVIVE FOR SOME TIME. SIMILARLY FOR PLANTS, IF A MINIMUM AREA TO ENSURE REGENERATION OF CERTAIN SPECIES IS NOT MAINTAINED, THEY WILL EVENTUALLY DIE OUT. THE NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS OR THE SIZE OF HABITAT NEEDED TO ASSURE SURVIVAL OF SPECIES HAS NOT YET BEEN GENERALLY DETERMINED. THE THRESHOLD  APPARENTLY  VARIES WITH THE GENETIC  MAKE-UP OF THE SPECIES,ITS HABITAT REQUIREMENTS AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS.

PRODUCERS AND COSUMERS

PRODUCERS TAKE SIMPLE SUBSTANCES FROM THEIR ENVIRONMENT AND MAKE COMPLEX ORGANIC MOLECULES USING SOLAR ENERGY. ALL OTHER ORGANISMS MOLECULES USING SOLAR ENERGY. ALL OTHER ORGANISMS IN THIS WORLD ARE, DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY, DEPENDENTON THE PRODUCERS FOR THEIR FOOD.

THE WORLD DEPENDS ON FOOD MADE BY THE PRODUCERS AND, FORTUNATELY FOR US, PRODUCERS COME IN ALL TYPES AND SIZES, FROM MICROSCOPIC SINGLE-CELL ALGAE, SMALL PLANTS TO GIANT TREES.

CONSUMERS ARE ORGANISMS THAT FEED ON PRODUCERS OR OTHER ORGANISMS. THEY ARE CLASSIFIEDS AS FLLOWS :

• PRIMARY CONSUMERS OR HERBIVORES THAT FEED DIRECTLY ON PRODUCERS 
• SECONDARY CONSUMERS OR CARNIVORES THAT FEED ON OTHER CONSUMERS
• TERTIARY CONSUMERS THAT EAT OTHER CARNIVORES.

FOOD CHAINS AND FOOD WEBS

THE CONCEPT OF A FOOD CHAIN  SHOULD  BE INTUITIVELY CLEAR. THE FROG EATS THE INSECT, THE SNAKE SWALLOWS THE FROG EATS THE INSECT, THE SNAKE SWALLOWS THE FROG, AND THE SWOOPING HAWK FINISHES OFF THE  SNAKE. WE THUS HAVE A FOOD CHAIN. IT IS JUST A SEQUENCE OF ORGANISMS, IN WHICH EACH IS THE FOOD FOR THE NEXT. ALL ORGANISMS, DEAD OR ALIVE, ARE POTENTIAL SOURCES OF FOOD FOR OTHER ORGANISMS.

FOOD CHAINS OVERLAP, SINCE MOST ORGANISMS HAVE MORE THAN ONE ITEM ON THEIR MENU. AGAIN, AN ORGANISM COULD BE FOUND ON THE MENUS OF MANY OTHER ORGANISMS. THUS, WE HAVE A COMPLEX NETWORK OF INTERCONNECTED FOOD CHAINS  CALLED A FOOD WEB.

IF EVERY ORGANISMS MUST EAT ANOTHER ORGANISM FOR SURVIVAL, WHERE DOES THE FOOD CHAINS START? OBVIOUSLY THERE MUST BE AT LEAST ONE SELF-FEEDING ORGANISM THAT PRODUCES FOOD AND EATS IT TOO! SUCH PRODUCERS ARE IN FACT ALL AROUND US-THE GREEN PLANTS.

THE MAJOR THREATS TO BIRDS

• HABITAT LOSS AND FRAGMENTATION 
• INTRODUCTION OF NON-NATIVE SPECIES : BIRD-EATING SNAKES, RATS, CATS, MONGOOSE, ETC.; INSECTS AND PATHOGENS
• HUNTING AND CAPTURE
• COLLECTION FOR PET TRADE
• LONGLINE FISHING : THOUSANDS OF SEA BIRDS ARE CAUGHT IN HOOKS AND DROWN.
• OIL SPILLS
• PESTICIDES AND HERBICIDES
• SKYSCRAPERS,TOWERS, AND POWER LINES THAT KILL MILLIONS OF MIGRATORY BIRDS

BIRD LOVERS AND BIRDWATCHERS ALL OVER THE WORLD ARE TRYING TO SAVE THE WINGED WONDERS. THE FUTURE, HOWEVER, LOOKS BLEAK FOR BIRDS EVERYWHERE.

KILLING OF SHARKS IN USA

THE GROWING DEMAND FOR SHARK FINS AND SHARK MEAT, PARTICULARLY IN ASIA, HAS LED TO A RAPID ESCALATION IN SHARK FISHING. BETWEEN 1970 AND 2005, SHARK POPULATIONS HAS DECREASED BY 97 PER CENT ON THE EAST COAST OF THE US. THIS HAS UPSET THE BALANCE OF NATURE LEADING TO THE FOLLOWING SERIES OF EVENTS :

• WITH THE DROP IN SHARK POPULATION, THEY CAN NO LONGER PERFORM THEIR ECOSYSTEM ROLE AS TOP PREDATORS.
• AS A RESULT, THE POPULATION OF THE EAST COAST COWNOSE RAY HAS EXPLODED.
• THE HORDES OF RAYS CONSUME HUGE NUMBERS OF BAY SCALLOPS.
• THE FISHERS NOW FIND NO SCALLOPS TO HARVEST. THIS HAS ENDED A CENTURY-OLD NOTH CAROLINA OCCUPATION.
• OTHER RAYS, SKATE, AND SMALLER SHARK SPECIES HAVE ALSO EXPLODED IN NUMBERS. THIS IS CAUSING A CASCADE EFFECT THROUGH OUT COASTAL FOOD WEBS.

THE ONLY SOLUTION SEEMS TO BE  TO BAN SHARK FINNING BOTH IN NATIONAL WATERS AND ON THE HIGH SEAS.

NATURAL SELECTION

IN MOST SPECIES, MANY MORE OFFSPRINGS ARE PRODUCED THAN CAN POSSIBLY SURVIVE. THIS OVER PRODUCTION CAUSES COMPETITION BETWEEN THE OFFSPRINGS CREATING A STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE. THE SUPERIOR GENOTYPES WILL MAKE A RELATIVELY LARGER CONTRIBUTION  TO THE GENE POOL OF THE NEXT GENERATION. THE RESULT OF DIFFERENTAL SURVIVAL AND DIFFERENTIAL  REPRODUCTION IS POPULARLY KNOWN AS  SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST. NATURAL SELECTION  FAVOURS THOSE VARIATIONS THAT ARE ADAPTIVE, AND THEREBY FOSTERS THE CONTINUED EXISTENCE AND IMPROVED REPRODUCTION OF THE SPECIES.

EVOLUTION OCCURS BY THE PROCESS OF NATURAL SELECTION. IN THE STRUGGLE FOR SURVIVAL, SOME LIVING THINGS ADAPT BETTER TO THE CONDITIONS. THESE INDIVIDUALS  ARE MORE LIKELY TO SURVIVE AND PRODUCE OFFSPRING. IF THE OFFSPRINS INHERIT THE SAME FEATURES, THEY TOO HAVE A GREATER CHANCE OF SURVIVAL. IT IS AS IF NATURE  CHOOSES  WHO WILL SURVIVE WHO WILL NOT.

EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTION EXPLAINS THE BODILY FEATURES AND BEHAVIOURS OF LIVING ORGANISMS. THE LONG, COLOURFUL FEATHERS OF A MALE BIRD OF PARADISE MAY SEEM A DRAWBACK . THEY MAKE HIM MORE OBVIOUS  TO PREDATORS AND LESS ABLE TO ESCAPE FROM THEM. BUT THEY ALSO ATTRACT FEMALES FOR BREEDING, AND SO THIS FEATURE IS PASSED ON TO HIS OFFSPRING.

BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS AND CHARACTERISTICS FROM GENERATION PARTLY THROUGH GENETIC MECHANISMS AND PARTLY BY IMPRINTING,CONDITIONING, OR TRAINING THE YOUNG TO BEHAVE IN PARTICULAR WAYS. 

VARIATION IN POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS

DIFFERENCE IN STRUCTURE, FUNCTION AND BEHAVIOUR BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS BELONGING TO THE SAME SPECIES ARE COMMON. IN FACT, NO TWO INDIVIDUALS BELONGING TO THE SAME SPECIES ARE COMMON. IN FACT, NO TWO INDIVIDUALS, EXCEPT PERHAPS IDENTICAL TWINS, HAVE EXACTLY SIMILAR CHARACTERISTICS. IT IS THE GRADUAL ACCUMULATION OF MANY VARIATIONS OVER MANY GENERATIONS WHICH EVENTUALLY GIVES A POPULATION REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION AND, CONSEQUENTLY SPECIES IDENTITY.

POPULATION MAY VARY IN CHARACTERISTICS  AS ADAPTATIONS TO LOCAL HABITAT CONDITIONS. AN INCREASE OR DECREASE IN THE FREQUENCY OF A GIVEN CHARACTERISTIC  APPEARS TO BE A RESULT OF VARIATIONS  IN THE SELECTIVE PRESSURE OF THE ENVIRONMENT, PERMITTING INDIVIDUALS WITH CERTAIN CHARACTERISTICS OR GENE COMBINATIONS TO SURVIVE AT ONE TIME OR PLACE; OTHER INDIVIDUALS, AT OTHER TIMES AND OTHER PLACES.

MOST SPECIES DIFFER NOT BY SINGLE GENES BUT BY HUNDREDS AND THOUSANDS OF GENES. WHEN FREE BREEDING, PREVAILS  IN A SPECIES, THESE GENES MAY BE ARRANGED IN ALL SORTS OF COMBINATION TO FORM AN ALMOST INFINITE MIXTURE OF CHARACTER MODIFICATION. HETEROZYGOTE ARE, THEREFORE, MUCH MORE FLEXIBLE IN ADAPTIVELY RESPONDING TO THE ENVIRONMENT  THAN ARE HOMOZYGOTE. THE MORE CHARACTERS FOR WHICH AN INDIVIDUAL IS HETEROZYGOUS, THE MORE ADAPTABLE ITS OFFSPRINGS ARE LIKELY TO BE. THESE POPULATIONS ARE MORE EFFICIENT IN EXPLOITING THE ENVIRONMENT THAN ARE GENETICALLY UNIFORM ONES.

SPECIATION

GENETIC VARIATION LEADS TO EVOLUTION OF NEW SPECIES OR SPECIATION. SPECIATION IS THE PROCESS THAT SEPARATES GENETIC VARIATION INTO DISTINCT UNITS, OR SPECIES. IN SPECIATION, THE ORIGINAL POPULATION OF ORGANISMS WITH SIMILAR GENES, CALLED GENE POOL, IS DIVIDED INTO TWO OR MORE GENE POOLS. EACH OF THIS GENE POOL ACQUIRES A NEW SET OF CHARACTERISTICS THROUGH MUTATION AND SELECTION. SPECIATION FOLLOWS MOST COMMONLY FROM THE PHYSICAL DIVISION OF A GENE POOL. THE SEPARATION INHIBITS INTERBREEDING BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS  IN TWO POPULATIONS. IN TIME, ONE OR BOTH POPULATIONS CHANGE ENOUGH TO PROHIBIT INTERBREEDING.

SPECIATION IS THEREFORE THE PROCESS OF EVOLUTIONARY DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN POPULATIONS, WHICH MAY RESULT IN ONE OLDER SPECIES BECOMING SPLIT INTO TWO OR MORE NEW ONES.

GENETICISTS DEFINE A POPULATION  OF SPECIES  AS A ' A REPRODUCTIVE COMMUNITY SHARING A COMMON CHARACTERISTIC GENE POOL.' EACH LOCAL POPULATION IS DIFFERENT FROM THE OTHER; THROUGH NOT EASILY DISTINGUISHABLE FROM  ONE ANOTHER, AND THEREFORE ARE GIVEN NO FORMAL NAMES.

MUTATIONS

MUTATION IS THE PROCESS IN WHICH THE GENETIC MATERIAL OF A PERSON, PLANT OR AN ANIMAL CHANGES IN STRUCTURE WHEN IT IS PASSED ON TO THE OFFSPRING. THE RATE AT WHICH ANY ONE GENE MUTATES VARIES GREATLY FROM ONE GENE TO ANOTHER. MUTATIONS OF DIFFERENT SORTS APPARENTLY OCCUR HAPHAZARDLY AND ARE NOT INFLUENCED BY ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS. ADAPTION OF A SPECIES TO A PARTICULAR HABITAT OR NICHE IS AFFECTED THROUGH NATURAL SELECTION OF THE FAVOURABLE MUTATIONS OUT OF THE MANY THAT OCCUR. THE SIZE OF THE POPULATION AND THE RATE AT WHICH A PARTICULAR GENE MUTATES AFFECTS THE ODDS OF MUTATION THAT A GENE ESTABLISHES ITSELF IN A POPULATION. 

BIOMES

A BIOME SYSTEM  IS RECOGNIZED ON THE BASIS OF COMMUNITIES, OF CHARACTERISTIC COMBINATIONS OF ANIMAL AND PLANT SPECIES, OF SUCCESSIONAL  RELATIONS BETWEEN  COMMUNITIES AND THE SUCCESSIONAL RELATIONS BETWEEN COMMUNITIES AND  THE SUCCESSION IN ALL LOCAL HABITATS WHICH EVENTUALLY CONVERT INTO A CLIMAX COMMUNITY PATTERN' AND FORMS THE MOST IMPORTANT  ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTIC OF A GEOGRAPHIC AREA.

THE PRINCIPAL GEOGRAPHIC UNIT IN A ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM IS THE BIOME. THE BIOME IS DIVIDED INTO PLANT ASSOCIATIONS, DISTINGUISHED  BY UNIFORMITY IN THE SPECIES COMPOSITION OF THE CLIMAX PLANT DOMINANCE AND BIOCIATIONS, IDENTIFIED BY UNIFORMITY AND DISTINCTIVENESS IN THE SPECIES COMPOSITION OF THE CLIMAX COMMUNITY, PARTICULARLY OF THE ANIMAL PREDOMINANT. SOME NINE TERRESTRIAL BIOMES AND FOUR MARINE BIOMES ARE RECOGNIZED. ON LAND, THE MOST IMPORTANT CLIMAX SPECIES ARE USUALLY PLANT DOMINANTS THAT OCCUR IN DISTINCTIVE VEGETATION AND LANDSCAPE TYPES; IN THE OCEAN, THE MOST IMPORTANT ORGANISM  THAT DEFINE BIOMES ARE USUALLY THE PREDOMINANT  ANIMALS WHICH ARE ALSO SOMETIMES ALSO DOMINANTS.

NUMBER SPECIES IN THE WORLD

WE DO NOT KNOW EXACTLY HOW MANY SPECIES INHABIT THIS EARTH. ESTIMATES RANGE FROM 4 MILLION TO 100 MILLION. THE BEST GUESS IS 10-14 MILLION. MOST OF THE SPECIES IN THE WORLD ARE INSECTS AND MICRO-ORGANISMS NOT VISIBLE TO THE NAKED EYE.

SO FAR ABOUT 1.8 MILLION SPECIES (NOT INCLUDING BACTERIA) HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED, NAMED, AND CATALOGUED. THESE INCLUDE 270,000 PLANT SPECIES, 45,000 VERTEBRATES,  AND 950,000 INSECTS. ROUGHLY 10,000 NEW SPECIES ARE IDENTIFIED EVERY YEAR.

OVERALL, OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECIES AND ECOSYSTEMS IS POOR. EVEN OUT OF THE IDENTIFIED SPECIES, ONLY A ONE THIRD HAVE BEEN STUDIED TO SOME LEVEL. AMONG THESE AGAIN, WE UNDERSTAND THE EXACT ROLES AND INTERACTIONS OF JUST A SMALL NUMBER OF SPECIES.

LIMITING FACTORS

A VARIETY OF ABIOTIC FACTORS AFFECT THE NUMBER OF ORGANISMS IN A POPULATION. A GIVEN SPECIES CAN SURVIVE AND GROW ONLY IF THE FACTORS FALL WITHIN A RANGE TOLERATED BY THE SPECIES. FOR EXAMPLE, AN ORGANISM MAY ONLY TOLERATE BY THAT SPECIES. FOR EXAMPLE, AN ORGANISM MAY ONLY TOLERATE A SPECIFIC TEMPERATURE RANGE.

AGAIN, IN A GIVEN SITUATION, ONE FACTOR MAY BE MORE IMPORTANT IN REGULATING THE POPULATION GROWTH OF A SPECIES THAN OTHER FACTORS. SUCH A FACTOR IS CALLED A LIMITING FACTOR. FOR EXAMPLE, A PLANT MAY NEED JUST THE RIGHT AMOUNT OF RAINFALL----NOT TOO LITTLE AND NOT TOO MUCH.

THE LIMITING FACTOR PRINCIPLE IS AS FOLLOWS : -

TOO MUCH OR TOO LITTLE OF AN ABIOTIC FACTOR CAN LIMIT OR PREVENT THE GROWTH OF A POPULATION, EVEN IF ALL OTHER FACTORS ARE AT THE REQUIRED RANGE OF TOLERANCE.

SOME OF THE LIMITING FACTORS IN TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS ARE : -

• RAINFALL OR PRECIPITATION
• TEMPERATURE
• MICRO NUTRIENTS

IMPORTANT LIMITING FACTORS FOR AQUATIC  ECOSYSTEMS ARE : -

• WATER TEMPERATURE
• SUNLIGHT
• DISSOLVED OXYGEN CONTENT
• SALINITY

BALANCE IN NATURE

FOR LONG SCIENTISTS HAVE BELIEVED THAT THERE WAS AN INHERENT EQUILIBIRIUM  IN MOST ECOSYSTEMS OF NATURE. WHEN DISTURBED, AN ECOSYSTEM TRIES TO RETURN TO A STATE OF BALANCE. IN OTHER WORDS, PLANTS AND ANIMALS INTERACT SO AS TO PRODUCE A STABLE, CONTINUING SYSTEM OF LIFE ON EARTH. (MODERN ECOLOGY DOES NOT FULLY ACCEPT THIS IDEA.

IN GENERAL, THE INTERACTIONS AND PROCESSES IN THE ECOSYSTEM ATTEMPT TO MAINTAIN A BALANCE. SOME EXAMPLES ARE

• FOOD CHAINS AND FOOD WEBS ENSURE THAT POPULATIONS ARE UNDER CONTROL.
• WASTE PRODUCTS PRODUCED BY ONE SPECIES ARE USED BY ANOTHER.
• RESOURCES USED BY SOME ARE REPLENISHED BY OTHERS.
• PLANTS PRODUCE THE OXYGEN NEEDED BY ANIMALS, WHILE THE WASTE PRODUCT OF ANIMAL RESPIRATION, CARBON DIOXIDE, IS USED BY PLANTS IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
• THE  WATER CYCLE KEEPS THE WORLD'S WATER CIRCULATING PROVIDING WATER WHERE AND WHEN IT IS NEEDED.

THE ACTIVITIES OF HUMAN BEINGS CAN, AND FREQUENTLY DO, DISRUPT THE BALANCE OF NATURE AND AFFECT BIODIVERSITY.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIODIVERSITY IN THE WORLD

THE VAST MAJORITY OF ALL SPECIES IN THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. NEARLY 50 TO 75 PERCENT OF ALL SPECIES ARE TO BE FOUND IN THE TROPICAL MOIST FORESTS THAT ACCOUNT FOR JUST 6 PERCENT OF THE LAND AREA. A HANDFUL OF SOIL IN A TROPICAL FOREST CONTAINS HUNDREDS OF SPECIES AND MORE THAN A MILLION INDIVIDUAL ORGANISMS.

IN THE TROPICS AND THE SUBTROPICS, WHERE WE FIND MOST OF THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES, THERE WAS ALWAYS AN EVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITY GIVING RISE TO A RICH BIODIVERSITY.BIODIVERSITY IS LESS IN THE COLDER NORTHERN REGIONS BECAUSE THE RECURRENT ICE AGES THERE SLOWED DOWN THE PROLIFERATION OF LIFE FORMS.

THE MEGA DIVERSITY COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD ARE : -

AUSTRALIA

ETHIOPIA

PERU

BRAZIL

INDIA

PHILIPPINES

CAMEROON

INDONESIA

SOUTH AFRICA

CHINA

MADAGASCAR

VENENZUELA

COLOMBIA

MALAYSIA

ZAIRE

COSTA RICA

MEXICO

ECUADOR

MYANMAR

THE ABOVE LIST SHOWS THAT THE MAJORITY OF THE WORLD'S BIODIVERSITY IS FOUND IN THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. THE GENETIC DIVERSITY NEEDED TO MAINTAIN THE WORLD AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM IS MAINLY FOUND IN THESE COUNTRIES MOST OF THE MEDICINAL PLANTS TOO ARE FOUND ONLY IN THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. HOWEVER, MOST OF THE BIODIVERSITY DATA HAS BEEN COLLECTED AND ANALYSED IN INSTITUTIONS THAT ARE BASED IN RICHER COUNTRIES.

MICRONUTRIENTS

MICRO NUTRIENTS ARE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS,  WHICH LIVING ORGANISMS (INCLUDING HUMAN BODIES AND PLANTS) NEED IN VERY LOW CONCENTRATIONS FOR NORMAL GROWTH. MICRO NUTRIENTS INCLUDE VITAMINS, IRON, CHLORINE, COPPER, MANGANESE, ZINC, MOLYBDENUM, AND BORON.

MILLIONS OF PEOPLE IN POOR COUNTRIES SUFFER FROM MICRO NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY AND THE CONSEQUENT PHYSICAL AND MENTAL AILMENTS, SUCH AILMENTS INCLUDE BLINDNESS, ANAEMIA, AND MENTAL RETARDATION.

 MICRO NUTRIENTS FOR PLANTS

IRON-----------------------ESSENTIAL FOR CHLOROPHYLL SYNTHESIS

COBALT--------------------CATALYST IN FIXING NITROGEN

BORON---------------------INVOLVED IN CARBOHYDRATE TRANSPORT

CHLORINE-----------------ASSISTS PHOTOSYNTHESIS

COPPER--------------------DEFICIENCY CAUSES BROWNING OF LEAF TIPS

MOLYBDENUM------------USED FOR NITROGEN FIXATION